British Museum - Part Two (The Romans)

A marble head thought to be of Julius Caesar, AD50,
from the sanctuary of Athena Polias at Priene, western Asia Minor

I have featured several collections of Roman finds from my local museum in Exeter to the Roman Legion museum in South Wales and Roman Villa finds in the south of England. The collection in the British Museum compliments these collections by bringing together examples of Roman items from around Britain and other parts of the Roman Empire.

From a historical wargamers perspective, the military finds are always going to be a major attraction, that can only add to our understanding when it comes to painting and modelling our collections. In addition the personal effects of the soldiers and the portraits of their leaders only add to that understanding and those principles underpin the focus of this post.

A cavalry combat helmet forms the centrepiece of the cabinet seen above next to bridle bits and horse furniture. The helmet is dated to around 1st century AD and was found in Ely in Cambridgeshire. The crest box and one cheek piece is missing together with an inner iron head piece and neck guard that would have provided the principle protection under the decorative bronze outer shell.

Peter Dennis' picture of Roman cavalry in action captures the look of the cavalry helmet and horse furniture

In the same cabinet, spurs from Gloucestershire, a caltrop from Walthamstow in London and a wooden pugio (dagger) also from a London grave site, thought either to be a practice weapon or a child's toy.

Further along in the cabinet (picture below) could be seen to the front centre scale and mail armour, next to replica scale (see above) to illustrate. These examples come from digs in Chester and Hod Hill in Dorset, the former a major Roman garrison town and the latter, a hill fort attacked by Vespasian on his march into the South West during the Claudian invasion.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hod_Hill

The Hod Hill site also produced the artillery bolt heads seen that Vespasian's troops would have used against the defenders and replicate the example from Maiden Castle near Dorchester, where the bolt head was found embedded in the spine of the skeleton of one of the defenders.

The two bronze shield bosses are from Papcastle, Cumbria and Kirkham in Lancashire and dated to the 2nd-3rd century AD, with one being engraved with battle images featuring Mars the god of war.

Mars the God of War engraved on the shield boss

The Ribchester cavalry sports helmet is thought to have been worn during cavalry sport events. It is made of a copper alloy and is decorated with skirmishing cavalry and infantry. Fitting for a crest box and streamer attachments can still be seen on this remarkable piece.

Another example of a cavalry sports helmet seen below dates to the 3rd century AD and is made of a light copper alloy with a decorated brow featuring Mars and Minerva.

Bronze military diploma - Malpas, Cheshire, AD 103

This bronze military diploma is a copy of the master that would have been held in Rome. It was issued in the name of Emperor Trajan to Reburrus, a Spanish junior officer (decurion) in the 1st Pannonian cavalry regiment. This precious certificate granted the bearer citizenship and the right to marry.

In my post covering the Royal Albert Museum in Exeter I spent time looking at the finds connecting the II Augusta Legion to the city and so it was a pleasure to find the home team represented here in the National museum with this commemorative stone from Hadrian's Wall

LEG II AUG - II Augusta Legion on Hadrian's Wall

The other two examples of Legionary marks are these examples of roof tiles carrying the marks of the XX Legion based in Chester and the famous IX Legion Hispana (what did happen to them, if anything) based at York.

XX Legion and boar emblem based at Chester

Roof tile from York with the IX Legion mark - LEG IX HISP

The next three pictures illustrate the items of kit of the 1st century legionary in Britain displayed to show how and where they would have been carried.

My journeys to major Roman villa sites in the south of England have allowed me to show you some stunning examples of Roman art displayed in their mosaic floors.

Though on a much smaller scale to those villa examples, this exquisite 3rd century AD square mosaic, seen below,  discovered under the site of the Bank of England in the City of London in 1805, stands as a fine example of the art.

You can generally spot the latter examples of these floor mosaics by the colour incorporated into them in comparison to the earlier black and white 1st century ones.

The Bank of England Mosaic

The messages between Romans covering daily activity really throw a bright light on to the daily concerns of its citizens and other peoples and the ever growing collection of translated tablets coming out of Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall are adding to that body of knowledge.

The tablet below is a letter of appeal from a civilian to a governor seeking redress for a beating received at the hands of a subordinate.

Translation:
" he beat(?) me all the more.......goods...or pour them down the drain(?). As befits an honest man(?) I implore your majesty not to allow me, an innocent man, to have been beaten with rods and, my lord, inasmuch as(?) I was unable to complain to the prefect because he was detained by ill-health. I have complained in vain(?) to the beneficiarius and the rest(?) of the centurions of his unit. Accordingly(?) I implore you mercifulness not to allow me, a man from overseas and an innocent man, about whose good faith you may inquire, to have been bloodied by rods as if I had permitted some crime."

The remains of textiles, due to its fragility, particularly from the period of Roman occupation, are always going to be extremely rare so it was quite a thrill to see these pieces of 4th century woollen chevron pattern cloth from a well in Cleveland

4th century Roman woollen cloth

I have seen the picture of the "Sword of Tiberius" many times in books on the Roman army and their weapons and so it was really exciting to see the item close up and I hope my photo does it justice as it really is an amazingly well preserved sword considering its age and the tinned bronze scabbard is a work of art.

The Sword of Tiberius, iron sword and tinned bronze scabbard
made about 15 BC found in the Rhine river, Mainz, Germany

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainz_Gladius

As mentioned previously, the writings being translated from Roman writing tablets from Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall are bringing yet more understanding of day to day life on the Roman frontier in Britain and the translations of three letters from a certain Flavius Cerialus commander of the ninth cohort of Batavians stationed at Vindolanda between about AD 95 and 105 made fascinating reading. The picture below shows the third letter from the display.

The description of the translation: A request for clothing.

Clodius Super, a centurion, asks Cerialis to send clothing to Super's 'boys' perhaps meaning slaves rather than children or soldiers. The request has already been approved by an official named Valentinus, whose return from Gaul reflects the fact that officials, merchants and many other inhabitants of Roman Britain had frequent contact with continental Europe.

"Clodius Super to his Cerialis, greetings. I was pleased that our friend Valentinus on his return from Gaul has duly approved the clothing. Through him I greet you and ask that you send me the things which I need for the use of my boys, that is the cloaks ...saga, seven palliola, six (?) tunics, which you well know that I cannot properly get hold of here, since we are ... ready (?) for the boys transfer (?)... May you fare well my dearest and ...est lord and brother.

On the back:
"To Flavius Cerialis, prefect, from Clodius Super, centurion.

These pictures are of yet more items of military kit, with a particularly striking ivory gladius or sparta handle and the ubiquitous lead bullets that would indicate a high number of slingers in Roman formations.

The British Museum also has a superb collection of sculptures of the elite of Roman society, namely the Imperial elite and as an avid listener of the History of Rome podcast it's always a thrill to put a face to the name of a great or infamous Emperor and so I chose to finish this post with a look at the Good, the Bad and the Ugly of the Pricipate and beyond.

Augustus, 63 BC - AD 14, perhaps many would say not only the first Emperor, but certainly one of the best.

Tiberius, 42 BC - AD 37 stepson to Augustus, a useful military commander,
but a less successful Emperor, clashing with the Senate and ruling with a reign of terror

Claudius, AD 41 - AD 54 has to be up in the top five Emperors bringing much needed stability after
the disastrous reign of  terror under Caligula and responsible for bringing Britannia into the empire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caligula

Vespasian, AD 60 - AD 79, The last man standing after the tumultuous time following the overthrowing
of Nero and the Claudian dynasty. The year of the four emperors ended up with a skilled general
and statesman in command and he would definitely be in my top five. 

Titus, AD 79 - AD81 the son of Vespasian and responsible for finishing his fathers campaign against the Jewish revolt
in Judaea. His reign was short but he had to deal with the eruption of Mount Vesuvius and the destruction of Pompeii and
Herculaneum and a terrible fire that devastated Rome.

Trajan, AD 98 - AD 117, arguably the best of the bunch alongside Augustus. An excellent
politician and soldier. He defeated the Dacians and threatened to do the same against the
Parthians until his untimely death when he looked set to imitate the exploits of Alexander the Great. 

Hadrian, AD 117 - AD 138, "the Greekling" after his bringing beards into fashion in Rome,
Hadrian reined in the expansion of the Empire under Trajan, to consolidate what was held.
Spent his time touring the Empire and staying out of Rome, being a great admirer of all things
Greek, he gave his name to the monument, his defensive wall across the north of England 

Aurelius, AD 161 - AD 180 the last of the great Emperors and in my top five, he pulled the Empire
together for the last time. A great soldier and philosopher, his war weariness was ended abruptly
by an untimely death after a long illness, that ended the resurrection of a united empire 

Severus AD 93 - AD 211 not part of the Principate, Severus was
a useful soldier-emperor, strengthening the defences of the Empire
he led a punitive expedition into Caledonia (modern Scotland) accompanied
by his delinquent sons, Caracalla and Geta. He died prematurely in
Eboracum (modern day York).

Caracalla AD 198 - AD 217, reigned jointly with his father, seen above and his brother
Geta, but would see him responsible for the murder of his brother in 211. He was
himself murdered by his Praetorian commander Macrinus on the road to Parthia.

Next up the British Museum Part Three, Italian Greeks, Latin States and Early Rome.

British Museum - Part One

If you have any interest in world history and take the time to visit sites of interest that feature largely in the story of great events it can often seem that all roads lead to the British Museum.

I have lost count of the number of little signs I have seen at other museums, visitor centres and other historical sites that have the little sentence displayed "item/s on display in the British Museum". This aspect of the museum is not without controversy in some circles, however the fact that these items are protected and freely available to view, safe for future generations cannot be denied, and the tragedy of events in Palmyra and other sites in Iraq and Afghanistan in recent times only serve to emphasise that point.

Carolyn and I had a planned trip to London to attend the wedding of an old school friend of mine and decided to make a long weekend of the trip. This meant that we had the best part of four hours to spend before catching our train back home and we decided to head for the British Museum.

Quite clearly four hours would not be long enough to do this venue justice and so we decided to focus on some specific galleries, whilst doing our best not to get distracted, which I partially failed at.

The plan was to check out the artifacts about the Roman and Greek world, the Celtic/Ancient British period and the finds associated with the Sutton Hoo.

Walking into the British Museum, felt for me like being a kid in a giant sweet shop, and what did I say about not being distracted?

My eye on approaching the Ancient and Medieval galleries was immediately drawn to a hoard of gold coins and pieces of jewellery and the sign indicating its association with the Wars of the Roses, another period I am passionate about.

The Fishpool Hoard, one thousand two hundred and thirty-seven coins and nine pieces of jewellery buried around 1464 after the Battle of Hexham in Northumberland

The Fishpool Hoard contains coins dating up to 1464 with some coming from countries with strong Lancastrian sympathies such as Scotland, France and the Netherlands, supporting the theory that this was money raised to support the Lancastrian cause.

The Lancastrians were defeated at Hexham in 1464 and this hoard may have been hidden by a supporter fleeing from the battle.

Fishpool in Nottinghamshire and its position relative to
some of the key battles of the Wars of the Roses

Jewellery found with the hoard. The ring set with turquoise was believed to protect the owner from poison, drowning or riding accidents 

The other four items pictured were not part of the hoard but have strong links to the war.

On the right can be seen the Towton Ring, a signet ring found on the battlefield of Towton. It carries the engraved figure of a Lion, a symbol of the Lancastrian Percy family and may have been worn by Henry Percy, the third Earl of Northumberland who was killed in the battle.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Percy,_3rd_Earl_of_Northumberland

Immediately to the left of the Towton Ring can be seen the silver Boar badge created to celebrate Richard III's coronation and distributed to his significant supporters. A similar badge like this was discovered at Bosworth in and around the position of the marshy ground where it is thought that Richard was killed in his duel with Henry Tudor and his entourage.

In addition to the boar badge and the Towton Ring described above you can see a gold pendant of Edward IV, probably worn by a supporter, and a Henry VI pilgrim souvenir from the shrine at Windsor dedicated to the murdered king.

With stuff like this on display you can see why it is easy to lose track of time and discipline. Forget about "Game of Thrones", this is it, the difference being, it actually happened, although with fewer dragons.

Anglo-Saxon Gallery
Sutton Hoo is one of those sites I have visited a few years ago now that had one of those frustrating signs mentioned previously.

The site of the burial mounds is fascinating, together with the information that describes the archeaology carried out there pre and post war.

http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/sutton-hoo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton_Hoo

Needless to say I was really looking forward to seeing the finds discovered, close up and personal so to speak.

These artifacts are a priceless insight into the early medieval period of the 6th and 7th century and the early period of Anglo-Saxon settlement, in this case in the Kingdom of the East Angles in modern day East Anglia.

This is just one of four helmets to survive from Anglo-Saxon England - similar helmets have been found in eastern Sweden, suggesting links and interactions between the two areas.

One can imagine the kind of warrior together with his personal guard covered in this Anglo-Saxon bling, with the light catching and drawing the eye to the blood red garnets. They would have been an imposing site.

The 33" long pattern-welded sword and scabbard with gold and garnet mounts

Even the shield fittings carried garnets

The replica helmet below really helps to illustrate the original in all its glory and the stunning workmanship.

The shoulder clasps seen below would have only emphasised the high status of the wearer. Made of gold, each clasp is decorated with inlaid garnets and millefiori glass and are hinged on a gold pin with an animal head - stunning!

The purse lid below was originally attached to a leather pouch, which held a quantity of Frankish gold coins. decorated in a similar manner to the shoulder clasps, the motifs are thought to have had a significance in Anglo-Saxon culture probably referring to strength and courage.

The reconstructed drinking horns are based on the decayed remains discovered but incorporate the original silver mounts that depict interlacing beasts and human facings. The horns are from the Auroch cattle which were extinct in Britain at the time and are thought to have been sourced from the Continent.

Each horn could hold two litres of mead or ale and would probably have been passed around during feasting rituals. Nice to think that similar traditions still exist with the more familiar glass yard of ale that can be seen drowning the odd participant in English drinking establishments to this day and still underpins the drinking/feasting culture of these islands when groups of young men and not so young men gather for a party.

The Great Gold Buckle

Popular with many of the Germanic peoples of the period, the great gold buckle is an example of the intricate hollow box Frankish buckles that very often held a precious relic as well as holding a belt together. Constructed from 400 grams of gold, the Sutton Hoo buckle displays an intricate pattern of 13 interlaced creatures outlined with a black alloy called niello

Gold and garnet sword belt

The gold and garnet theme is carried on in the design of the sword belt, with similar examples discovered on the Continent, but none to match the exquisite splendour of the one seen above.

Anglo-Saxon sword and fittings. The white objects on the right are horse teeth gaming pieces buried with a fallen warrior

Alongside the Sutton Hoo finds were other examples of Anglo Saxon items and the sword in the photo above was a very eye catching example. These pattern welded iron blade swords were a very high status weapon requiring great skill to construct and the worn silver fittings would suggest this one was a well used family heirloom passed on, probably with a name that spoke of the great deeds it was involved in.

The select warriors that accompanied a king would be rewarded for their valour by gifts from their leader of gold, silver and garnet fittings that would be worn on the scabbard, pommel and sword belt to display their status, example of which can be seen in the cabinet at the front.

The recently discovered Staffordshire Hoard has similar items of Anglo-Saxon warrior bling, thought to have been recovered from the dead in battle and hidden for recovery and distribution at a later date. It was with such baubles, to quote Napoleon, that men are motivated to great valour.

Sword belt and scabbard fittings as seen above

The gold items below consisting of pendants and buckles illustrate the shift to Christianity and its associated symbols, with the inclusion of fish designs seen on the buckle and the early style crosses depicted on the pendants.

Vikings in Britain Gallery

Close to the Anglo-Saxon collection can also be seen items of Viking origin discovered in Britain and Ireland.

From the late 700's, the Viking influence began to dominate the waters around the British isles with raids launched against remote coastal monasteries and Viking settlements constructed in and around modern day Dublin.

An unusual short sword discovered in Ireland displays a Viking style handle decorated with copper alloy rings. The iron blade thought to have been made on the Continent displays markings on both sides which show a cross, circles and vertical lines. possibly representing the makers mark. The blade would have been sharpened on both sides and was designed as a slashing weapon.

Silver Viking ring brooches

Viking ring brooches evolved in Ireland traditionally made from copper alloy and decorated with gilt and enamel.

Thought to have been used by Irish warriors when raiding in Britain, the short sword or gladius displays its Roman origins, with two sharp blades and a pointed tip designed for stabbing.

So that's the first part of this post. In the next section I will look at the Roman and Celtic collections and a post reporting on my very pleasant trip to Attack 2016 at Devizes.