The World Turned Upside Down - 3rd Pennsylvania Continental Regiment.

 

The Continental Congress authorised the raising of four additional battalions in Pennsylvania on December 9th, 1775, to serve in the Continental Army, following the model of an existing battalion already formed in the colony. These units were to consist of infantry companies enlisted for one-year terms, with recruitment directed by the Pennsylvania Committee of Safety, and on December 15th, 1775, Congress further resolved that the Committee recommend field officers and appoint lower-ranking ones for these battalions.

Colonel Arthur St. Clair.

One of these, designated the 2nd Pennsylvania Battalion, was placed under the command of Colonel Arthur St. Clair, who received his commission on January 3rd, 1776, and recruitment drew from Pennsylvania volunteers across counties such as Northampton and Westmoreland, forming eight companies of infantry equipped with standard Continental arms and provisions, including hunting shirts or coats, haversacks, canteens, and tomahawks. Initial enlistments emphasized volunteers motivated by the defence of American liberty, with pay structured to include an advance for equipment deductions from monthly wages until repaid.

The battalion mustered initially in locations like Carlisle, Pennsylvania, reaching a total strength of approximately 728 officers and men by late April 1776, as reported in a general return at New York during its march northward., and as part of the emerging Pennsylvania Line, the Continental Army's organized contribution from the state, the 2nd Pennsylvania Battalion joined other Pennsylvania units in the Fourth Brigade under St. Clair, tasked with northern operations.

The unit, commanded by Colonel Arthur St. Clair, arrived piecemeal at key points along the route, including Albany and Ticonderoga; four companies reached the lines before Quebec by March 30th, 1776, though too late for the main assault of December 31st, 1775, before crossing into Canada via Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River, reaching positions near Sorel by late May amid growing British reinforcements, and with a regimental return for that month showing 378 men all ranks fit for duty out of a total number of 481 men that included sick and men on detached service.

By June 1776, the regiment mustered 597 personnel across eight companies and participated in the failed offensive against British positions in Canada, including the Battle of Trois-Rivières on June 8th, 1776. As part of a force under Brigadier General William Thompson that included elements from the 4th and 6th Pennsylvania Battalions, St. Clair's men were involved in the engagement against British troops at Trois-Rivières, contributing to the American retreat from the area.

The Albany to Quebec area of operations for the 2nd Pennsylvania Battalion in 1776.

Following the defeat, the battalion joined the broader retreat from Canada, evacuating Sorel on June 14th under Major General John Sullivan and reaching Isle aux Noix by June 18th, where rampant disease—exacerbated by poor sanitation, exposure, and malnutrition—decimated its ranks, with over half the men reporting ill by late June. The unit continued southward through St. Johns and Crown Point, arriving at Fort Ticonderoga by early July, where it was brigaded under St. Clair in the Northern Department on July 20th; by August, its effective strength had dwindled to about 429 rank-and-file, reflecting cumulative losses exceeding 100 from combat, captures, desertions, and illness during the campaign.

Battle of Valcour Island - V. Zveg.
Elements of the battalion provided infantry detachments from Ticonderoga to support Brigadier General Benedict Arnold's makeshift fleet during the battle.

In October 1776, elements of the battalion provided infantry detachments from Ticonderoga to support Brigadier General Benedict Arnold's makeshift fleet during the Battle of Valcour Island on Lake Champlain, contributing to the delaying action that disrupted British naval plans despite the American vessels' ultimate defeat and scuttling. The regiment was relieved from St. Clair's Brigade on November 14th, remaining in the Northern Department through the winter amid ongoing fortifications and supply shortages.

Officer, 3rd Pennsylvania Continental Regiment.

As part of the Continental Congress's broader reorganisation of the Continental Army in late 1776, the 2nd Pennsylvania Battalion was redesignated the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment effective January 1st, 1777, with formal organisation and officer commissions dated February 15th, 1777, to standardise the numbering and structure of Pennsylvania's contributions to the national force, principally twelve infantry regiments. This change aligned the unit with the new establishment, which aimed to create a more uniform army of 88 regiments across the states, each with defined ranks and roles.

The regiment's company structure was adjusted under this establishment, initially maintaining eight companies of infantry, with one field officer per company and a total authorized strength of approximately 728 men including officers. However by 1778, following consolidation with elements of the 12th Pennsylvania Regiment, it expanded to nine companies to address manpower shortages and enhance operational flexibility, while officer ranks were rationalised to include a colonel, lieutenant colonel, major, and adjutant per regiment.

The situation at the start of 1777 when the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment joined the Main Army under Washington at Middlebrook Camp, New Jersey.
Map from Philadelphia 1777, Taking the Capital - Osprey Campaign.

General Washington and the Main Continental Army spent the early part of 1777 at Middlebrook, New Jersey, whilst the New Jersey militia harassed British foraging parties, that prompted British General Howe to strike at American forces near Bound Brook on the 13th April and launch the Danbury Raid into Connecticut on the 25th-27th April; and in June, Howe sought to bring Washington's army into battle by advancing from Amboy, that initiated the Battle of Short Hills on 26th June 1777.

Detail of a 1777 map depicting part of north-eastern New Jersey, showing the approximate movements of British and American forces that led to the Battle of Short Hills, June 26th 1777.

The 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment, now numbering some 150 men all ranks was assigned to Brigadier General Anthony Wayne's 3rd Pennsylvania Brigade on May 22nd, 1777, as part of the Main Continental Army, where it served alongside the 5th, 9th, and 11th Pennsylvania Regiments. 

Thomas Conway.
Congress appointed him as a brigadier general
in the Continental Army on May 13th 1777. 
His name was used politically to describe the infighting
known as the 'Conway Cabal', an affair, caused by his
writing a letter to Horatio Gates in which he referred
to Washington as a "weak general," criticising
General Washington's failed tactics against
British General William Howe.

By June the brigade had changed somewhat with the 3rd now alongside the 6th, 9th, and 12th Pennsylvania Regiments together with Spencer's Additional Regiment under the command of Brigadier General Thomas Conway, part of Major-general William Alexander, Lord Stirling's Division when it participated in the Battle of Short Hills.

The Battle of Short Hills, June 26th 1777, - Atlas of the Battles and Campaigns of the American Revolution 1775-1783.

Washington had moved his main army out of the hills around Middlebrook, attempting to press Howe's positions around Amboy and Howe seizing the opportunity marched two columns of troops out on June 26th in an attempt to cut Washington off from the high ground. The British troops skirmished with Lord Stirling's troops and eventually engaged in a pitched battle in Scotch Plains, that saw Stirling's outnumbered force retreat, by which time Washington, alerted to the British movement, had by then retreated back to the hills.

Private Soldier, 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment.

After the setbacks in New Jersey, Howe proposed operations against Philadelphia that included an overland expedition and a sea-based attack, thinking this might lead to a decisive victory over the Continental Army. 

This plan was developed to the extent that in April, Howe's army was seen constructing pontoon bridges; Washington, lodged in his winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, thought they were for eventual use on the Delaware River. However, by mid-May Howe had apparently abandoned the idea of an overland expedition: 

"I propose to invade Pennsylvania by sea . . . we must probably abandon the Jersies."

Howe landed 15,000 troops in late August at the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay, about 55 miles southwest of Philadelphia.

 

Washington positioned 11,000 men between Howe and Philadelphia but was outflanked and driven back at the Battle of Brandywine, fought on September 11th, 1777 as Howe led approximately 15,000 British and Hessian troops in an advance from Maryland, aiming to the Continental Army positioned along Brandywine Creek near Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania.

Washington expected Howe’s army to march from Kennett Square, in the West, up to Chad’s Ford and carry out a frontal assault. Thus the Pennsylvania Militia were posted to the left of the Chad’s Ford position, where little threat was perceived, whilst Washington positioned Wayne’s Pennsylvania Continentals, with Weedon’s and Muhlenberg’s brigades, in the centre opposite Chad’s Ford, under the command of Major-General Nathaniel Greene.

Major-General John Sullivan commanded on the right of the American army, posting forces under Colonel Moses Hazen at the distant Wistar’s and Buffington’s Fords. Light infantry and pickets were posted to the West of Brandywine Creek, to give warning of the British advance.

Map illustrating the actual advance of Howe's army and the repositioning of Sullivan's wing to counter the threat to the American right flank.

Washington appears to have been advised of the British encircling movement by Hazen’s distant troops, but to have discounted the warning for some hours, with Washington and his staff convinced that the main attack would be a frontal assault over Chad’s Ford. It was not until early afternoon that he was finally persuaded that the main British movement was to his right rear, this after he had begun an assault across the ford, and had to countermand those orders.

On the alarm being given, Sullivan marched his right wing of the American army to the North-East and, joining the retreating Hazen, formed his troops on a hill at the Birmingham Meeting House in time to meet Howe’s regiments which had formed three columns and attacked the Americans.

The Battle of Brandywine, September 11th 1777.
Map illustrating the position of the 3rd Pennsylvania Brigade under Conway.

The 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment, under Colonel Thomas Craig, and part of the 3rd Pennsylvania Brigade under Conway held a forward position in Sullivan's division, tasked with supporting skirmishers in the town of Birmingham as well as five pieces of artillery positioned along the crest of the hill overlooking the town.

Division: Major General William Alexander (Lord Stirling)

3rd Pennsylvania Brigade: Brigadier General Thomas Conway (950)

3rd Pennsylvania Regiment (150 all ranks)

6th Pennsylvania Regiment (200 all ranks)

9th Pennsylvania Regiment (193 all ranks)

12th Pennsylvania Regiment (231 all ranks)

Spencer's Additional Regiment (186 all ranks)

JJ's Wargames: The World Turned Upside Down - His Majesty's 1st Light Infantry Composite Battalion, 1777.

When the 1st British Light Infantry reached the Birmingham Church yard, the American guns opened fire on them as the American skirmishers in the town fell back, pursued by three companies of light infantry that managed to take shelter from the artillery in dead ground at the base of the slope, overlooked by the 3rd Pennsylvanians.

The 1st Battalion Light Infantry at the Battle of Brandywine, September 11th, 1777 taking shelter from the artillery in dead ground at the base of the slope, and overlooked by the 3rd Pennsylvanians - Stephen Walsh (Osprey).

The Pennsylvanians resisted repeated attempts to climb the hill, at times advancing on the British light bobs keeping up a fire so hot that the light infantry were forced to go prone to load and fire.

Eventually Sullivan's left flank gave way in the face of the assault by British Grenadiers and Guards, sweeping up Birmingham Hill, that saw the three companies of light infantry now joined by a company of lights from the 4th King's Own and the Grenadier Company of the 43rd Foot join the assault by dashing forward up the hill and driving off the 3rd Pennsylvania Brigade as a whole, capturing the five American guns in the process.

The Americans were driven from their positions, and the battle ended with the American army withdrawing up the road to Philadelphia in considerable confusion, with nightfall saving the Americans from greater loss, whilst the British encamped on the battlefield.

The Continental Congress once again abandoned the city, relocating first to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and later York, Pennsylvania, this as British and Patriot forces manoeuvred around each other west of Philadelphia for the next several days, clashing in minor encounters such as the abortive Battle of the Clouds and the night Battle of Paoli.

The Battle of Germantown, October 4th 1777.
Map illustrating the position of the 3rd Pennsylvania Brigade under Conway on the extreme right of Sullivan's line.

After taking Philadelphia, the British garrisoned about 9,000 troops in Germantown, five miles north of the city, and despite concerns raised in his September council of war, Washington determined to surprise the British army in camp. 

His overcomplicated plan required a strong column under Major-General Nathaniel Greene, commanding Green's own Division under BG Peter Muhlenberg, MG Stephen's Division, and BG Alexander McDougall's Connecticut Brigade, to attack the right wing of the British army, which comprised Grant’s and Donop’s troops. 

Battle of Germantown, Painted by Xavier della Gatta, 1782.
This brick building is Xavier della Gatta’s representation of Cliveden, the home of Philadelphia lawyer Benjamin Chew. Della Gatta’s painting shows the 40th Regiment commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Musgrave entering the mansion and preparing to defend it. The 40th Regiment defended the house from intense artillery fire and 10 infantry assaults over a span of about two hours. One observer said the “Englishmen fought like lions.”

The second column, which Washington commanded, had Lord Stirling's Division in reserve, whilst MG John Sullivan's Division and BG Anthony Wayne's Pennsylvania Division, with 3rd Pennsylvania Brigade under Conway now about 800 men strong, in the lead, would advance down the main Philadelphia road and attack the British centre; additionally the forces of American militia would attack each wing of the British force, formed of the Queen’s Rangers on the right, and, on the left near the Schuylkill River, Hessian Jägers and British Light Infantry.

The fog and the stubborn defence at Cliveden (Chew House) disrupted coordination among the American columns, which saw some units mistakenly firing on their own troops, and prior to the futile attack against Cliveden by Stirling's Reserve, Sullivan's division advanced beyond in the fog, with Sullivan deploying Conway's brigade to his extreme right, whilst the other two Pennsylvanian brigades under Brigadier General Anthony Wayne covered the left flank before advancing on the British around Germantown.

In the fog, Wayne’s men encountered Stephen’s and the two American forces exchanged fire, after which both broke and fled. This left Sullivan and Conway to be subsequently forced back by the British counter attack, despite the American regiments fighting a stubborn rear-guard action hampered by a dwindling ammunition supply after firing multiple volleys blindly into the fog.

Washington was forced to retreat and to watch and wait for the anticipated British counterattack. However due to a prolonged defence of the Delaware River by Commodore John Hazelwood and the Continental Navy, the British were forced to focus on opening this key supply route to support their occupation of Philadelphia, finally securing the river by taking Fort Mifflin and Fort Mercer in November. 

In early December, Washington successfully repelled a series of probes by Howe in the Battle of White Marsh, and when the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment entered the Valley Forge camp on December 19th, 1777 it mustered just 116 men fit for duty and by May 2nd 1778 the army returns indicated 187 men assigned with 125 men fit for duty.

When Washington's Main Army marched out of Valley Forge on the late afternoon of June 18th 1788, in pursuit of the British Army now under the command of Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton on the march to New York City via Sandy Hook, New Jersey, having evacuated Philadelphia three days earlier, the 3rd Virginia Brigade was under new management following General Conway being relieved of command, and with the brigade as a whole only likely fielding some 600 men for duty.

3rd Virginia Brigade: Colonel Oliver Spencer (Probable) (600 )

3rd Virginia Regiment (107 all ranks)

6th Virginia Regiment (146 all ranks)

9th Virginia Regiment (117 all ranks)

12th Virginia Regiment (108 all ranks)

Spencer's Additional Regiment (69 all ranks)

Malcolm's Additional Regiment (72 all ranks)

Washington learned the British were evacuating Philadelphia on June 17th and he immediately convened a war council, at which all but two of the seventeen generals present believed the Continental Army still could not win a pitched battle against the British, Lee arguing it would be criminal to attempt one. Unsure of Clinton's exact intentions and with his officers urging caution, Washington determined to pursue the British and move to within striking distance.

The track of the American army as it pursued the British to Monmouth Court House.
Monmouth Maps from the Book Fatal Sunday - Friends of Monmouth Battlefield

The Battle of Monmouth unfolded on June 28th, 1778, amid sweltering heat in central New Jersey, General Charles Lee's advance guard initially engaged the enemy successfully but retreated in disarray following Lee's controversial orders, prompting George Washington to ride forward and rally the troops with a personal counterattack, reorganizing the line and launching a renewed offensive.

General Washington confronts General Lee at the Battle of Monmouth.
"I desire to know, sir, what is the reason – whence arises this disorder and confusion?"

The 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment, fresh from rigorous winter training at Valley Forge that had transformed the Continental Army's discipline and tactics, formed part of General Anthony Wayne's Pennsylvania division in the main army. Assigned to the 3rd Pennsylvania Brigade, the regiment helped anchor the center during Washington's rally, enduring intense combat against Clinton's rearguard in temperatures exceeding 100°F (38°C), where heat exhaustion claimed as many victims as musket fire.

The attack on Clinton's rearguard by the 3rd Pennsylvania Brigade.
Monmouth Maps from the Book Fatal Sunday - Friends of Monmouth Battlefield

In the late afternoon, the regiment participated in the renewed offensive against the British rearguard, holding firm amid the chaos and contributing to the stalemate that denied the British a clean escape. Casualties for the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment remained relatively low at under 20, including the death of Lieutenant Colonel Rudolph Bunner, struck down near the fighting line.

This engagement marked a psychological turning point for the Continental Army, restoring confidence after Valley Forge by demonstrating its ability to stand toe-to-toe with professional British troops in open battle.

Following Monmouth, the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment continued garrison duties at Fort Pitt while elements participated in operations in the northern theatre, and on July 1st, 1778 it was consolidated with the 12th Pennsylvania Regiment and re-designated as the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment, to consist of nine companies. 

Following the Battle of Monmouth, the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment continued garrison duties at Fort Pitt until December 1778, when the regiment joined Washington's Main Army in New Jersey.

From December 1778 to June 1779, the regiment encamped at Middlebrook, New Jersey, supporting Washington's main army, joining the New Jersey Campaign in April–October 1779, conducting patrols and defensive operations against British foraging parties and Loyalist activity in the region.

On June 7th 1780 Hessian General Wilhelm von Knyphausen, in command of the British garrison at New York City, made two attempts to reach the principal Continental Army encampment at Morristown, New Jersey, with the first frustrated by companies of the New Jersey militia under Brigadier General William Maxwell at Connecticut Farms, on the road to Springfield from Elizabethtown Point, that forced Knyphausen to withdraw, with all likely surprise lost.

On June 23rd Knyphausen and Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton, now British commander-in-chief in North America, decided upon a second attempt, with a two-pronged assault planned, with one column starting from Elizabethtown advancing along the Galloping Hill Road, straight through Connecticut Farms and Springfield, while another column would take the Vauxhall Road north of Springfield along the southern edge of Short Hills. 

Both were heading for the same objective as on June 7th, namely the  Hobart Gap above Springfield, the path through the Watchung Mountains that would allow an advance across eleven miles of flat ground to Washington's main encampment at Morristown.

A period map of New Jersey, illustrating the area and troop movements of the Springfield campaign of 1780, one of the last major engagements in the north.

Although the British were initially able to advance, they were ultimately forced to withdraw in the face of newly arriving rebel forces, resulting in a Continental victory, with the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment now part of the 2nd Pennsylvania Brigade in reserve as part of Major General Nathanael Greene's Pennsylvania Division. The battle effectively ended British ambitions in New Jersey.

The Battle of Springfield.
General Greene employing his signature tactics of defence in depth.
American forces: Approximately 2,050 soldiers under Major General Nathanael Greene, including Continental troops from Rhode Island, New Jersey militia, and cavalry under Major “Light Horse” Harry Lee.
British forces: Around 2,550 troops commanded by Lieutenant General Wilhelm von Knyphausen, including British regulars, Hessians, and Loyalist units such as the Queen’s Rangers and Musketeer Regiments von Donop and von Bose.

In the later stages of the American Revolutionary War, the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment underwent significant reorganisation following the expiration of many three-year enlistments and the aftermath of the Pennsylvania Line mutiny in January 1781, which affected multiple regiments including elements of the 3rd. 

The Pennsylvania Line Mutiny began on January 1st, 1781, when 1,500 soldiers from the Pennsylvania Line, all eleven regiments under General Anthony Wayne’s command insisted that their three-year enlistments were expired, and killed three officers in a drunken rage as they abandoned the Continental Army’s winter camp at Morristown, New Jersey, before matters were ended with a negotiated settlement on January 8th, with the final negotiated terms concluded by January 29th, 1781. 

The unit was consolidated with the 11th Pennsylvania Regiment on January 17th, 1781, reducing the Pennsylvania Line from twelve to four regiments while granting furloughs to discharged soldiers and recruiting new troops to fill ranks.

Detail of a military map prepared by an assistant to the Marquis de Lafayette in 1781. The full map shows the movements of Lafayette and Cornwallis in Virginia during the 1781 Yorktown campaign. This detail shows a portion of the Virginia Peninsula running west and north from Williamsburg; this area was the scene of two battles between the two forces: Battle of Spencer's Ordinary (location labelled "le 26 Juin") and Battle of Green Spring (location labelled "le 6 Juille").

Detachments from the reorganised 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment, about 300 men, were dispatched south starting in May 1781 as part of the broader Southern Campaign, which extended through December 1782 and included operations in the Carolinas and Georgia, to reinforce Major General the Marquis de Lafayette's operations in Virginia, joining Brigadier General Anthony Wayne's Pennsylvania Brigade amid efforts to counter British General Lord Cornwallis's manoeuvres. 

The Battle of Green Spring, July 6th 1781.
On July 4th, Cornwallis departed Williamsburg for Jamestown, planning to cross the James River en route to Portsmouth. Lafayette believed he could stage an attack on Cornwallis's rear guard during the crossing; however Cornwallis anticipated Lafayette's idea, and laid an elaborate trap, that saw General Wayne's forces were very nearly caught in the trap, and only a bold bayonet charge against the numerically superior British enabled his forces to retreat.

These forces engaged at the Battle of Green Spring on July 6th, 1781, where they advanced against a superior British position, suffering casualties but withdrawing in good order to avoid encirclement. Later, the detachment contributed to the Siege of Yorktown from October 6th to 17th, 1781, participating in artillery operations and the investment of British lines that led to Cornwallis's surrender.

Meanwhile, the main body of the regiment remained stationed in Pennsylvania throughout 1781 and into 1782, primarily tasked with home defence against potential British naval raids along the Delaware River and coastal areas, as well as suppressing lingering unrest from the mutiny within the Pennsylvania Line. Elements also conducted frontier patrols in central and western Pennsylvania to deter Loyalist incursions and Native American attacks allied with the British. These duties reflected the regiment's shift toward garrison and protective roles as major field operations waned in the northern theatre.

The 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment was disbanded on November 3rd, 1783, following the Treaty of Paris that ended the war, marking the conclusion of its service in securing American independence.

In August 1778, Major Jonathan Gostelowe, a member of the Philadelphia militia artillery, and serving with the 4th Continental Artillery Regiment, completed an inventory of all arms and materiel held by the Continental Army in south-eastern Pennsylvania. This inventory included illustrations of thirteen standards (regimental flags). It is not known which regiments were issued these flags, or indeed if they were issued at all.

My 3rd Pennsylvania Continental Regiment are composed of plastic Continental Infantry from Perry Miniatures and carry purely conjectural colours, with  a Blue Divisional Colour from GMB flags and an enlarged Gostelowe Flag No.6, with the motto 'Death or Honour' from Flags of War. 

I intend to use the Gostelowe flags for my 'Pennsylvanian associated' units in the absence of other references and you can see Gostelowe Standard No. 5, with the motto, 'Sustain or Abstain' (Help or Stay Neutral), and with a thorn bush in hand, from Flags of War, in service with the German Regiment, link below.

JJ's Wargames: The World Turned Upside Down - The German Battalion (8th Maryland) Continental Regiment.

I have my 3rd Pennsylvania Continental Regiment displayed as a sixteen figure regiment which is obviously generous considering its strength and that of several of the other Pennsylvania regiments during the Philadelphia Campaign, but I intend it to stand in as a combined regiment incorporating members of the 6th Pennsylvania Regiment when taking the table. 

As usual, my regiment is finished off with a set of low profile sabot bases from Supreme Littleness Designs.

The next regiment to feature in my 'The World Turned Upside Down' project will be the 9th Pennsylvania Regiment, so as always, more anon.

JJ

Postscript:

I finished composing this post with a heavy heart, as this week I heard that a close wargaming friend of mine, Mr Ian Toogood, who I had had the pleasure of knowing and sharing many a game with over the last thirty odd years passed away after enduring, with great stoicism, a long illness.

My old friend Mr Ian Toogood enjoying happier times playing a gigantic D-Day game back in the nineties, with Ian seen suffering shell shock from all those Churchill Funnies blasting him out of his pillboxes.

I remember our times together with much fondness and I've attached some pictures from happier days when we were all a lot younger, and that remind me what fun and laughs we had over those years.

Our D-Day team from way-back-when, with Ian, fourth from left, and me with hair, second from right.

Ian had a passion for WWII history and back in 2015 he let that passion loose by acquiring a WWII vintage 1943 Jeep, 'Flossy', decked out in British 51st Highland Division markings and brought her to the Devon Wargames Group, with several of us enjoying a drive around Exeter drawing lots of admiring glances from those who recognised this beautiful old lady.

Me, getting to know Ian's new girlfriend 'Flossie', with Ian, centre, chatting to the lads. 
JJ's Wargames: A Special Old Lady visits the Devon Wargames Group

I would like to extend my deepest condolences to Ian's wife Lynn, and to express my own loss for an old friend and wargaming buddy. 

God Bless mate and farewell.

JJ

JJ's on Tour, France 2026 - Le Touquet Paris Plage, and the Battle of Agincourt, 1415.

This year, due to a big family wedding in May and a few home improvements that needed doing, Carolyn and I decided to take a few shorter breaks instead of our more normal longer excursion away, which saw us traveling to Tenerife in March and my exploration of the town of Santa Cruz, followed later in late July, nearer to home with a week exploring glorious Dorset, and then in September with a nine day trip to Le Touquet-Paris-Plage, for which this is the third and final post in a series looking at the town and three specific sites close by, Montreuil, Crecy and in this post, Agincourt.

Our base for the week was at Le Touquet-Paris-Plage, with some key sites at Montreuil-sur-Mer, Crecy and Agincourt included in our list of places to visit during our break.

If you missed the previous posts you can read them through in sequence using the links below.

JJ's Wargames: JJ's on Tour, France 2026 - Le Touquet Paris Plage, and Montreuil-sur-Mer.

JJ's Wargames: JJ's on Tour, France 2026 - Le Touquet Paris Plage and its WWII History, and the Battle of Crecy 1346.

One of my other pleasures when traveling, apart from anything to do with my history interests is to enjoy some natural history which more often than not will include a bit of bird spotting and any other interesting wildlife that can be seen whilst also ticking another box, to include walking in the great outdoors.

On our first visit to the area a couple of years ago we stayed nearer to Berck or Burque, see the map above, where we first saw the local seal colony on the beach at low tide.

These grey seals are highly entertaining to watch and whilst exploring the dunes and checking out old WWII German bunker complexes we noticed the seals hunting off shore, this time at high tide, and soon drawing a crowd of other folks previously promenading the front whilst enjoying the sunny weather.

As well as the grey seals this part of the French coast is home to a lot of bird life very familiar to those of us from the other side of the Channel.

Common Terns flock the beach, squabbling with the odd black-headed gull, and the imperious great black backed gull on the waters edge

However one of the more entertaining species to watch were the Common Terns that populate the sandy beaches and provided a spectacular display of flying skills as each morning high tide they could be observed plummeting into the briny no doubt in pursuit of sand eels.

Cormorants were also well represented among the sea bird population.

The next set of shots took a bit of getting, but I wanted to catch the Turns doing their stuff, and trust me this is the original and peerless dive-bomber.

Flying straight and level, on the lookout below for a suitable target.

Target identified, the dive has commenced, no dive breaks here.

Contact! That poor old sand eel never new what hit it!

One other seal colony we discovered, this time at low tide, was those that hang out in the mouth and estuary of the River Canche, again on another big walk and bunker hunt.

The mouth of the River Canche. The seal colony is just visible on the extreme end of the sand spit jutting out into the mouth of the river.

The camera was doing its stuff, these seals were seen from the top of the dunes at maximum telephoto.

Care has to be taken on the beaches around here as quick-sand is a hazard at low tide, that and the need not to disturb these creatures, somewhat ignored by a few folks, striding down the beach, mobile phone in hand, only to drive the seals from the beach into the water to avoid the intruders and they failing to get any meaningful pictures - 'hey-ho, forgive them Lord for they know not what they do'.

I however, with a decent camera, managed to edge a little closer without disturbance beforehand and was rewarded with some nice pictures.

Just as we were getting ready to go, we were rewarded with a finale to our day of nature spotting, as Carolyn spotted a fast moving critter shooting across the beach investigating the clumps of weed, and like a pro, the camera was up and I pressed the shutter button, and just managed a few shots of a stoat at full tilt.

I wasn't that surprised to see this little chap foraging on the beach, as he probably feasts on the odd Turns egg during nesting season.

As well as enjoying the natural history of this part of France, the military history and particularly those of us interested in the Hundred Years' War as a period in history is well catered for with the area forming the cockpit of the action as first King Edward III, and then the Lancastrian King Henry V, scorched their way along this part of the French coast leaving a trail of destruction and spoiling for the fight their actions were intended to provoke.

Henry the V on film with Laurence Olivier's version of Henry from 1944 and a later incarnation portrayed of course by Kenneth Branagh in the 1989 translation of the Shakespearean classic.
We few, we happy few, we band of brothers;
For he to-day that sheds his blood with me
Shall be my brother; be he ne'er so vile,
This day shall gentle his condition;
And gentlemen in England now a-bed
Shall think themselves accurs'd they were not here,
And hold their manhoods cheap whiles any speaks
That fought with us upon Saint Crispin's day.

Back in the 'good-old days' when English kids in English schools got taught English history, I can well remember at about the tender age of seven being enthralled by the tale of Henry and his archers cornered and outnumbered but determined to give a good account of themselves, and pouring over a Ladybird illustrated history book in the school library displaying the scenes of battle as the story was recounted with each turn of the page.

Probably one of the earliest influences on the young JJ 
developing a passion for military history - Ladybird Primary School books.

These school lessons were reinforced, when occasionally the 1944 film would appear on the television, in black and white back in those days, but despite the rather stilted Shakespearean dialogue, only further capturing the imagination.

Henry V of England, c16th Century - Artist Unknown

That interest in Agincourt was further stimulated in my teens when studying Henry IV Part One for my English Literature 'O' Level, which whetted the appetite to find out more about the young 'Prince Hal' who fought the rebel Harry Hotspur at the Battle of Shrewsbury, earning his spurs the hard way with an arrow to the right side of his face, and rather belying the film star looks portrayed by Olivier and Branagh, considering the ugly scar that left him with and thus the portrait above portraying him in profile.

JJ's Wargames: Offa's Dyke Walk - Part Two (Battles of Shrewsbury 1403 & Mortimer's Cross 1461)

Mr Steve and I visited the battlefield of Shrewsbury back in 2019, link above, so a visit to Agincourt seemed a very appropriate way to honour the history of this very famous English warrior king.

The 1415 Azincourt Interpretation Centre

So it was that I found myself eagerly looking forward to making another hour's drive out into the fields of Picardy to pick up where we left off at the Battle of Crecy only a few days earlier, that was the opening shot in the disastrous Hundred Years' War, with the concluding one at the Battle of Agincourt, with it seems the nobility of France having learned nothing in the intervening years other that to prove the age old truism, 

'keeping on doing the same thing and expecting different results is the first sign of madness!'

The inability of the French nobility to find a way to overcome English tactics in the Hundred Years' War probably explains why I have never been interested in wargaming it, despite the colour and glamour of mounted knights, preferring instead the more popular medieval period that was the following era of the Wars of the Roses, the resulting civil war that followed the loss of French possessions in the wake of the Battle of Castillon on 17th July 1453 and the herald of the new age of warfare with gunpowder.

 

The typical look of some of the infantry in the Agincourt campaign, with an English archer front and centre whilst behind a French crossbowman and well equipped French spearman carrying a glaive, a spear like weapon with a cutting edge.
The Armies of Agincourt - Christopher Rothero (Osprey Men-at-Arms).

On his accession to the throne of England in April 1413 Henry V resolved to revive the war against France if the French failed to acknowledge his claim to the French throne through his great-grandfather Edward III of England.

In the ensuing negotiations Henry said that he would give up his claim to the French throne if the French would pay the 1.6 million crowns outstanding from the ransom of John II (who had been captured at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356), and concede English ownership of the lands of Anjou, Brittany, Flanders, Normandy, and Touraine, as well as Aquitaine, and in addition Henry would marry Catherine, Charles VI's young daughter, and receive a dowry of 2 million crowns.

The French responded with what they considered the generous terms of marriage with Catherine, a dowry of 600,000 crowns, and an enlarged Aquitaine, with Shakespeare imaginatively incorporating into his portrayal of these negotiations a gift from the French Dauphin of a barrel of tennis balls that Henry threatened to turn into cannon shot.

The Agincourt Campaign of 1415.

By 1415, negotiations had ground to a halt, and the English felt that the French had mocked their claims and ridiculed Henry himself, and so on 19th April 1415, Henry again asked the Great Council to sanction war with France, and this time they agreed, and on the 13th August 1415 Henry's army landed in northern France with an army of about 12,000 men and up to 20,000 horses, proceeding to besiege the port of Harfleur.

The siege took longer than expected, with the town surrendering on the 22nd September, and the English army not leaving until the 8th of October having suffered many casualties through disease and leaving Henry facing a dilemma, following the late departure of the army from England and the unexpectedly stubborn resistance of the Harfleur garrison that left little of the campaigning season ahead, whilst large French forces were assembling round him.

Rather than retire directly to England for the winter, after his costly expedition had captured only one town, Henry decided to march most of his army (roughly 9,000) to the port of Calais, the English stronghold in northern France, to demonstrate by his presence in the territory at the head of an army that his right to rule was more than a mere abstract legal and historical claim, whilst he also intended the manoeuvre as a deliberate provocation to battle aimed at the dauphin, who had failed to respond to Henry's personal challenge to combat at Harfleur.

English senior command in the Agincourt Campaign, with Lord Camoys, commander of the English left wing in the battle, Lord Bardolph Lieutenant of Calais, and King Henry V of England. All men wear the 'S' decorated collars showing high office under the House of Lancaster, and the insignia of the Order of the Garter, worn on the left calf.
The Armies of Agincourt - Christopher Rothero (Osprey Men-at-Arms).

Henry sent a messenger by sea to Calais ordering the Governor of the town, Sir William Bardolph, to march to the crossing point in the estuary of the Somme that Edward III had used in 1346 and hold it open for Henry’s army, however on arrival at the Somme estuary there was no sign of Bardolph and in his place a French force barred the crossing, forcing Henry to marched south east along the left bank of the river, with a French force keeping pace and opposing any attempt to cross. 

Finally the English army was able to outstrip the shadowing Frenchmen by cutting straight across a bend in the river, south of Péronne, crossing and resuming the march north east towards Calais. In the face of the gathering French armies Henry ordered his archers to cut sharpened staves to form a barrier against mounted attack. 

On the 24th October 1415 the English army, led by a screen of scouts, marched through the Picardy town of Frévent, now within 30 miles of Calais and safety, but as the army entered the valley beyond the town, the scouts came riding back at speed with the news that an immense army blocked the road. The French had managed to march past the English and cut across their route during the delay on the Somme, and beyond the village of Maisoncelles the French came into sight, a mass of knights and men-at-arms spilling across the valley from the East. 

The church in Azincourt.

The English had very little food, having marched 260 miles in two and a half weeks, were suffering from sickness such as dysentery, and were greatly outnumbered by well-equipped French men-at-arms. The French army blocked Henry's way to the safety of Calais, and delaying battle would only further weaken his tired army and allow more French troops to arrive. Seeing that he could not pass without giving battle Henry ordered his army to encamp and prepare to fight the next day.

The currently assumed position of the battlefield of Azincourt as illustrated on the battlefield tour guide in the Interpretation Centre.

The precise location of the battle is uncertain given the lack of archaeological evidence at the traditional site, specifically the narrow strip of open land formed between the woods of Tramecourt and Azincourt.

Early on the morning of October 25th (the feast day of St. Crispin), 1415, Henry positioned his army for battle on a recently ploughed field bounded by woods. His men-at-arms were stationed in the centre, flanked by wedges of archers who carried longbows that had an effective range of 250 yards. The terrain favoured Henry’s army and disadvantaged its opponent, as it reduced the numerical advantage of the French army by narrowing the front. This would prevent manoeuvres that might overwhelm the English ranks.

The supposed position of the English line at Agincourt in the field beyond the hedge, and the French position on the horizon beyond, seen from the Battlefield Viewing Tower as shown at Point 3 on the tour map above. The English camp area is thought to have been set up in the field to the left of picture. As you can see we were enjoying the kind of weather experienced at the battle, and the wet ploughed field adds to the impression of the likely conditions during the battle.

Fighting commenced at 11:00 am, as the English brought their longbows within killing range and the first line of French knights advanced, led by cavalry. The field that the French had to cross to meet their enemy was muddy after a week of rain and slowed their progress, during which time they endured casualties from English arrows. 

The mud in the battle scenes from the 1989 version of Henry V, improved somewhat on the emerald green sunny vistas seen in the 1944 version.

Recent research on the battlefield has revealed the rather unique composition of the soil at Agincourt that goes someway to explain the effect of the mud in this part of France on the knights and men at arms trying to cross this terrain clad in heavy plate, the effect of which only added to the viscosity encountered. I've attached a link to the YouTube video that revealed this story and the research done at Oxford University.

When the first French line reached the English front, the cavalry were unable to overwhelm the archers, who had driven sharpened stakes into the ground at an angle before themselves. Eventually the archers abandoned their longbows and began fighting hand-to-hand with swords and axes alongside the English nobles and men-at-arms.

A view of the battlefield from the French side of the field, with the English line occupying the area on the horizon between the two areas of woods.

The next line of French knights that poured in found themselves so tightly packed (the field narrowed at the English end) that they were unable to use their weapons effectively, and the tide of the battle began to turn toward the English. 

The Battle of Agincourt, 1415- Graham Turner.
Henry V (raised visor) is in the thick of the fighting, surrounded by his bodyguard and with his banners flying above him, as they desperately fight off the French knights and men at arms who have struggled through the mud and barrage of English arrows to reach their antagonists.

As the English were collecting prisoners, a band of French peasants led by local noblemen began plundering Henry’s baggage behind the lines. Thinking it was an attack from the rear, Henry had the French nobles he was holding prisoner killed. The third line of the French army, recoiling at the pile of corpses before them and unable to make an effective charge, was then massacred swiftly.

Home - 1415 Agincourt - the centre and museum of the battle

As at Crecy, Agincourt boasts a modern interpretation centre, entitled Agincourt 1415 Centre, in the town of Agincourt, and is a good place to start a tour of the battlefield from. 

The Centre is the development of what originally was an exhibition presenting the battle opened to the public, in a room in the village hall in the early 1980's. Twenty years later, in June 2001, the "Medieval Historical Centre" opened its doors before being expanded in 2005 with the inauguration in August 2019, of the brand new "Centre Agincourt 1415".

Renaud or Regnault of Agincourt, a French nobleman from Artois, in Northern France, also featured in the Graham Turner picture above, bottom left, visor raised and advancing towards Henry V.

On entering the foyer one is greeted with the life size manikin of Renaud or Regnault of Agincourt, a French nobleman from Artois, in Northern France, amid spent English arrows, and alongside the Graham Turner picture of the battle as seen above.

Renaud saw action in the service of the Duke of Burgundy, before meeting his end at the Battle of Agincourt on October 25th, 1415, along with his son Valeran, with the line of the Lords of Agincourt ending at the close of the 15th century.

There is a very nice purpose built gallery that informs the visitor about the history of the Hundred Years' War and the specific events leading up to the battle.

Various other displays cover information about food and drink, dysentery, and surgical techniques for dealing with common battlefield wounds of the period.

Dysentery was the scourge of medieval armies, a serious affliction of the intestine provoked by the consumption of contaminated food or drink, that would be treated with bleeding, bathing and a special two week diet, not very available to the common soldier leading to a very high death rate among those afflicted.

Weapon wounds were prone to haemorrhaging, with the first concern by the surgeon to cauterise it with a heated rod and dress it with fabric dressings. Any foreign bodies in the wound were carefully removed before cleaning and drying with the help of warm wine or a mixture of egg white, rosehip syrup and wine, and sometimes salt water, before it was stitched, with honey and other plant based balms applied before bandaging.

Arrow wounds were a common issue for medieval surgeons to deal with, and a type of chisel was often used to push an arrowhead further away from nerves, veins and bones, after the shaft had been removed, with a cross shaped incision made at the point the arrow had entered the flesh to aid in its removal.

If too difficult to remove immediately, the surgeon might wait a few days until the wound started to suppurate which would likely make it easier to get at it, or if embedded too deeply was simply left to avoid further complication by its removal, with wounds to the stomach area particularly feared as they proved more often than not to be fatal.

For fractures, the surgeon aided by his assistants to hold the affected limb, would push any exposed bone back into place, before placing a poultice around the fracture site, made of linen impregnated with rose oil or egg white, before splints were applied to immobilise the limb covered with bandages soaked in a mixture of flour and egg yoke that created a hardening agent to keep everything in place.

Open fractures were much more problematic as the risks from haemorrhaging, gangrene and tetanus were considerable, and surgeons went to great pains to remove bone splinters to avoid infection.

All these techniques and procedures were well understood battlefield treatment protocols only further complicated by the addition of gunpowder weapon wounds, that caused more damage to flesh than arrows and other common edged and bludgeoning weapons.

Round shot and ball destroyed flesh that became infected very quickly, seeing some surgeons resorting to putting lard into the wounds left by extracting ball or splinters, or with others using linen soaked in oil made from elder bark, new techniques designed to absorb noxious poisons. However it would not be until the next century that these practices ceased and the introduction of the use of various balms increased the chances of survival.

Typical tents and makeshift structures used in a medieval war camp.
Left to right - Rectangular or ridge tent popular with great lords or a place where a group of soldiers could sleep. Bell or domed tent, called a 'pavilion' often found in XIIth to XVth century illustrations, and a temporary shelter also shown in medieval illustrations constructed from tree branches.

Medieval war camps were quite rare, with armies campaigning in France usually lodging in towns and villages, billeted on the inhabitants, with camps only set up when the army was on a raid or during a siege. Individual tents, called pavilions were used by the nobility, soldiers of lower ranks such as urban militias sheltered in larger tents provided by their towns, whilst the poorest had to make do with the cover of trees or makeshift awnings.

From a wargamers perspective I enjoy looking at and photographing original and replica dress and weapons, and I have a library of books covering the recreated looks of warriors by reenactors throughout the various eras I am interested in; to get a better idea of the way types of clothes and equipment appeared on the wearer, that helps me better recreate and portray my figures when I paint them.

At the Agincourt Centre, the display proved really useful with this regard, with costumes displayed for well to do civilians, men and women, through to the armour and other military dress and various weapons, alongside period examples to validate the replica ones.

The civilian cloths give a good idea of the muted colours various natural dyes could create during this period, really useful when selecting an appropriate painting palette of colours.

For the armour, I find the detail of how the various pieces were strapped to the body and how the various under garments of protective jackets and mail that added to the protection were worn with it really useful. Some of my most informative pictures come from seeing the back of the various pieces and the straps, something really handy when painting knights and men at arms, where most of the illustrations show these warriors from the front.

A French 'pig-faced' or hound-skull bascinet, late 14th century early 15th century, seen above a red textile covered (linen and silk velvet) steel cuirass based on a late 14th century German original. The pavise and English shield are constructed from wood, linen and gesso.

To the top left is a copy of an early 15th century steel kettle hat above a steel bevor
of the same period, both based on a late 14th century Italian illustration. Whilst to the right
is a reconstruction of an early 15th century great-bascinet, based on an English effigy, whilst below it 
is a copy of an Italian late 14th century globose breastplate. 

The arming doublet seen below is a reconstruction of a late 14th century early 15th century example based on French and Italian illustrations and is composed of linen and quilted cotton, combined with arms and a skirt of mail.

The reconstructed leg harness below it is based on a late 14th century early 15th century English effigy.

The gauntlets are based on late 14th century German originals, whilst the
sabatons below are based on a similarly dated English effigy. 

These vambraces are late 14th century and based on an English effigy.

Mail collar and shirt above a typical linen and quilted cotton jack, the latter 
based on a French original example.

Arming hose based on German originals

Left is a mail coif with quilted linen and cotton lining, based on a German original, and right, a copy of a bascinet and aventail, late 14th century based on an Italian original.

Alongside the cabinet of arming hose, jacks helmets and mail was an equally impressive array of medieval weaponry of the period.

A magnificent display of weaponry, from bows, handguns and polearms to various swords, axes and daggers. 

A copy of a French late 14th century wrought iron handgun, with an ash wood handle.
Alongside is the English longbow illustrating the outer sapwood and inner heartwood of the 
Yew, although other hardwoods such as ash and elm could also be used.

The battlefield of Agincourt and the 1415 Interpretation Centre are well worth a visit if you are in the area, and like Crecy, the site is very will marked and prepared for the visitor, with a similar viewing tower arranged close to the 1963 dedicated monument to the battle seen below.

There is a well laid out driveable circuit of the battlefield allowing views across the presumed site of the action from both the English and French lines.

I hope you have enjoyed this three post series of our trip to Le Touquet Paris Plage, which rounds off our trips away for 2026, and I think this and our other breaks to Tenerife and Dorset this year amply illustrate the potential for those of us interested in military history, not to mention natural history, to easily incorporate those aspects into our travel plans.

Next up, work has recommenced on The World Turned Upside Down project with the latest unit to join the collection to be featured, namely the 3rd Pennsylvania Continental Regiment of Infantry.

As always, more anon.

JJ